Al-Andalus: Rise and Fall of Muslim Spain

Paravoz.es
May 21
3 min read

The Alhambra is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Spain.

The Prelude to Invasion

"Florinda" (1853) by Franz Xaver Winterhalter — a painting depicting young women bathing in a garden, linked to the legend about King Roderic and the events leading to the Muslim conquest of Spain. — Franz Xaver Winterhalter Florinda Public Domain Cuenta la leyenda que al seducir a la joven Florinda, el rey Rodrigo condenó su reino. En venganza, su padre abrió el camino a los conquistadores árabes. Así comenzó una nueva era, y la anterior terminó con la caída del último trono godo.

By the early 8th century, the Visigothic kingdom in Iberia had weakened due to internal conflicts. After King Wittiza’s death in 710, a struggle for the throne broke out. The new king, Roderic, faced opposition, which made the kingdom vulnerable to foreign invasion. Meanwhile, the Umayyad Caliphate was rapidly expanding its influence in North Africa. The Berbers, recently converted to Islam, had already conquered most of the Maghreb. Their newfound faith came with militant enthusiasm, and many viewed conquest as both a military and religious mission.

The governor of Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia), Musa ibn Nusayr, sent his general Tariq ibn Ziyad across the Strait of Gibraltar. Some Visigothic factions may even have assisted the Muslims. It was at this moment that Tariq and his forces began their march to Iberian shores, ushering in a new era.

The Battle of Guadalete

In 711, Tariq’s army, numbering around 7,000–12,000, landed in southern Spain. Legend says he burned his ships to prevent any chance of retreat.

The decisive battle took place near the Guadalete River, where Tariq’s troops met King Roderic’s forces. According to some accounts, a portion of the nobility betrayed Roderic, and he died in the fighting, though the exact fate remains unclear. The battle was disastrous for the Visigoths, and it effectively ended their kingdom.

Map of the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th century: arrows indicate the movements of Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nusayr’s forces; key battles are marked, including the Battle of Guadalete and the capture of major cities such as Córdoba, Toledo, and Zaragoza.

The Muslim forces quickly advanced north, seizing Córdoba, Toledo, and Zaragoza. By 718, nearly all of present-day Spain and Portugal — except for northern mountainous regions — was under Muslim control.

Al-Andalus

Córdoba the city rose up as the capital of the Emirate of Córdoba, while in the tenth century during the Caliphate of Córdoba it became one of the main cities in the world both in population and for its medical, mathematical, artistic, philosophical, literary, scientific advances, etc.

After the conquest, Iberia became a province of the caliphate, known as Al-Andalus. Initially ruled by Umayyad governors, in 756 Abd al-Rahman I — a surviving Umayyad prince — established the independent Emirate of Córdoba, which later became the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929.

Between the 9th and 11th centuries, Al-Andalus became a major center of science, art, and architecture in the medieval world. Magnificent palaces, mosques, and madrasas were built, and disciplines like medicine, astronomy, philosophy, and mathematics flourished. Cities like Córdoba, Granada, and Seville rivaled Baghdad and Cairo in cultural prestige.

Al-Andalus was a state where Muslims, Christians (Mozarabs), and Jews (Sephardim) lived side by side. This era is often called the period of convivencia — coexistence.

Cultural Coexistence

Miniature from the Codex Vigilanus (circa 976): depiction of the monk Vigila, the scribe of the manuscript, holding a quill and scroll, symbolizing transcription and knowledge preservation in medieval Spain. — Codex Vigilanus Public Domain

In Al-Andalus, Muslims, Christians, and Jews shared a vibrant society. Although Islam was dominant, other religions were allowed. Muslim rulers granted Christians and Jews the status of dhimmi — “People of the Book” — allowing them to practice their faith, pay a tax (jizya), and receive protection. This fostered a unique multilingual and multicultural environment.

Scientific progress was driven by the translation of ancient Greek works into Arabic and their expansion. Thinkers like Averroes (Ibn Rushd), Maimonides, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Hazm, and Al-Zahrawi made Al-Andalus a major intellectual hub. Their writings influenced both Islamic and medieval European science, philosophy, and medicine.

Still, convivencia was not without conflict: outbreaks of religious tension, uprisings, and repression did occur — especially under stricter dynasties like the Almoravids and Almohads.

The Beginning of the Reconquista

Shortly after the Muslim conquest, a Christian counteroffensive began from the north. In 718, in the Asturian mountains, the Battle of Covadonga saw a local Christian force led by Pelayo defeat the Muslims. This marks the start of the Reconquista — the Christian campaign to reclaim the peninsula.

Initially slow, the Reconquista gained momentum from the 11th century onward, following the breakup of the Caliphate into smaller taifa kingdoms. Christian kingdoms such as Castile, Aragon, León, Navarre, and Portugal rose in strength and pushed southward.

Córdoba fell in 1236, Seville in 1248. The last Muslim stronghold, Granada, was conquered in 1492. This brought an end to the Reconquista and nearly 800 years of Muslim presence in Iberia.